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      October 2018

      How to Get Started with FreeBSD


      Introduction

      FreeBSD is a secure, high performance operating system that is suitable for a variety of server roles. In this guide, we will cover some basic information about how to get started with a FreeBSD server.

      This guide is intended to provide a general setup for FreeBSD servers, but please be aware that different versions of FreeBSD may have different functionalities. Depending on which version of FreeBSD your server is running, the instructions provided here may not work as described.

      Logging in with SSH

      The first step you need to take to begin configuring your FreeBSD server is to log in.

      On DigitalOcean, you must provide a public SSH key when creating a FreeBSD server. This key is added to the server instance, allowing you to securely log in from your local machine using the associated private key. To learn more about how to use SSH keys with FreeBSD on DigitalOcean, follow this guide.

      To log in to your server, you will need to know your server’s public IP address. For DigitalOcean Droplets, you can find this information in the control panel. The main user account available on FreeBSD servers created through DigitalOcean is called freebsd. This user account is configured with sudo privileges, allowing you to complete administrative tasks.

      To log in to your FreeBSD server, use the ssh command. You will need to specify the freebsd user account along with your server’s public IP address:

      • ssh freebsd@your_server_ip

      You should be automatically authenticated and logged in. You will be dropped into a command line interface.

      Changing the Default Shell to tcsh (Optional)

      If you logged into a DigitalOcean Droplet running FreeBSD 11, you will be presented with a very minimal command prompt that looks like this:

      If you're new to working with FreeBSD, this prompt may look somewhat unfamiliar to you. Let's get some clarity on what kind of environment we're working in. Run the following command to see what the default shell for your freebsd user is:

      Output

      /bin/sh

      In this output, you can see that the default shell for the freebsd user is sh (also known as the Bourne shell). On Linux systems, sh is often an alias for bash, a free software replacement for the Bourne shell that includes a few extra features. In FreeBSD, however, it's actually the classic sh shell program, rather than an alias.

      The default command line shell for FreeBSD is tcsh, but DigitalOcean Droplets running FreeBSD use sh by default. If you'd like to set tcsh as your freebsd user's default shell, run the following command:

      • sudo chsh -s /bin/tcsh freebsd

      The next time you log in to your server, you will see the tcsh prompt instead of the sh prompt. You can invoke the tcsh shell for the current session by running:

      Your prompt should immediately change to the following:

      If you ever want to return to the Bourne shell you can do so with the sh command.

      Although tcsh is typically the default shell for FreeBSD systems, it has a few default settings that users tend to tweak on their own, such as the default pager and editor, as well as the behaviors of certain keys. To illustrate how to change some of these defaults, we will modify the shell's configuration file.

      An example configuration file is already included in the filesystem. Copy it into your home directory so that you can modify it as you wish:

      • cp /usr/share/skel/dot.cshrc ~/.cshrc

      After the file has been copied into your home directory, you can edit it. The vi editor is included on the system by default, but if you want a simpler editor, you can try the ee editor instead:

      As you go through this file, you can decide what entries you may want to modify. In particular, you may want to change the setenv entries to have specific defaults that you may be more familiar with.

      ~/.cshrc

      . . .
      
      setenv  EDITOR  vi
      setenv  PAGER   more
      
      . . .
      

      If you are not familiar with the vi editor and would like a more basic editing environment, you could change the EDITOR environment variable to something like ee. Most users will want to change the PAGER to less instead of more. This will allow you to scroll up and down in man pages without exiting the pager:

      ~/.cshrc

      . . .
      setenv  EDITOR  ee
      setenv  PAGER   less
      . . .
      

      Another thing that you will likely want to add to this configuration file is a block of code that will correctly map some of your keyboard keys inside the tcsh session. At the bottom of the file, add the following code. Without these lines, DELETE and other keys will not work correctly:

      ~/.cshrc

      . . .
      if ($term == "xterm" || $term == "vt100" 
                  || $term == "vt102" || $term !~ "con*") then
                # bind keypad keys for console, vt100, vt102, xterm
                bindkey "e[1~" beginning-of-line  # Home
                bindkey "e[7~" beginning-of-line  # Home rxvt
                bindkey "e[2~" overwrite-mode     # Ins
                bindkey "e[3~" delete-char        # Delete
                bindkey "e[4~" end-of-line        # End
                bindkey "e[8~" end-of-line        # End rxvt
      endif
      

      When you are finished, save and close the file by pressing CTRL+C, typing exit, and then pressing ENTER. If you instead edited the file with vi, save and close the file by pressing ESC, typing :wq, and then pressing ENTER.

      To make your current session reflect these changes immediately, source the configuration file:

      It might not be immediately apparent, but the Home, Insert, Delete, and End keys will work as expected now.

      One thing to note at this point is that if you are using the tcsh or csh shells, you will need to execute the rehash command whenever any changes are made that may affect the executable path. Common scenarios where this may happen occur when you are installing or uninstalling applications.

      After installing programs, you may need to type this in order for the shell to find the new application files:

      With that, the tcsh shell is not only set as your freebsd user's default, but it is also much more usable.

      Setting bash as the Default Shell (Optional)

      If you are more familiar with the bash shell and would prefer to use that as your default shell, you can make that adjustment in a few short steps.

      Note: bash is not supported on FreeBSD 11.1, and the instructions in this section will not work for that particular version.

      First, you need to install the bash shell by typing:

      You will be prompted to confirm that you want to download the package. Do so by pressing y and then ENTER.

      After the installation is complete, you can start bash by running:

      This will update your shell prompt to look like this:

      To change freebsd's default shell to bash, you can type:

      • sudo chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash freebsd

      The next time you log in, the bash shell will be started automatically instead of the current default.

      If you wish to change the default pager or editor in the bash shell, you can do so in a file called ~/.bash_profile. This will not exist by default, so you will need to create it:

      Inside, to change the default pager or editor, add your selections like this:

      ~/.bash_profile

      export PAGER=less
      export EDITOR=ee
      

      Save and close the file when you are finished by pressing CTRL+C, typing exit, and then pressing ENTER.

      To implement your changes immediately, source the file:

      If you'd like to make further changes to your shell environment, like setting up special command aliases or setting environment variables, you can reopen that file and add your new changes to it.

      Setting a Root Password (Optional)

      By default, FreeBSD servers do not allow ssh logins for the root account. On DigitalOcean, this policy has been supplemented to tell users to log in with the freebsd account.

      Because the root user account is inaccessible over SSH, it is relatively safe to set a root account password. While you will not be able to use this to log in through SSH, you can use this password to log in as root through the DigitalOcean web console.

      To set a root password, type:

      sudo passwd
      

      You will be asked to select and confirm a password for the root account. As mentioned above, you still won't be able to use this for SSH authentication (this is a security decision), but you will be able to use it to log in through the DigitalOcean console.

      To do so, click the Console button in the upper-right corner of your Droplet's page to bring up the web console:

      DigitalOcean web console

      If you choose not to set a password and you get locked out of your server (for instance if you accidentally set overly restrictive firewall rules), you can always set one later by booting your Droplet into single user mode. We have a guide that shows you how to do that here.

      Conclusion

      By now, you should know how to log into a FreeBSD server and how to set up a bash shell environment. A good next step is to familiarize yourself with some FreeBSD basics as well as what makes it different from Linux-based distributions.

      Once you become familiar with FreeBSD and configure it to your needs, you will be able to take greater advantage of its flexibility, security, and performance.



      Source link

      Como Usar o Git: Um Guia de Consulta Rápida


      Introdução

      Equipes de desenvolvedores e mantenedores de software open-source geralmente gerenciam seus projetos através do Git, um sistema distribuído de controle de versão que suporta colaboração.

      Este artigo no estilo de Guia de Consulta Rápida fornece uma referência de comandos que são úteis para o trabalho e colaboração em um repositório Git. Para instalar e configurar o Git, certifique-se de ler “How To Contribute to Open Source: Getting Started with Git.”

      Como utilizar esse guia:

      • Este guia está no formato de Guia de Consulta Rápida com fragmentos de linha de comando autocontidos.

      • Pule para qualquer seção que seja relevante para a tarefa que você está tentando completar.

      • Quando você vir texto destacado nos comandos deste guia, tenha em mente que este texto deve se referir aos commits e arquivos em seu próprio repositório.

      Configuração e Inicialização

      Verifique a versão do Git com o seguinte comando, que irá também confirmar que o git está instalado.

      Você pode inicializar seu diretório de trabalho atual como um repositório Git com o init.

      Para copiar um repositório Git existente hospedado remotamente, você irá utilizar git clone com a URL do repositório ou a localização do servidor (no último caso você irá usar ssh).

      • git clone https://www.github.com/username/nome-do-repositório

      Mostrar o repositório remoto do seu diretório Git atual.

      Para uma saída mais detalhada, use a flag -v.

      Adicionar o Git upstream, que pode ser uma URL ou pode estar hospedado em um servidor (no último caso, conecte com ssh).

      • git remote add upstream https://www.github.com/username/nome-do-repositório

      Staging

      Quando você modificou um arquivo e o marcou para ir no próximo commit, ele é considerado um arquivo preparado ou staged.

      Verifique o status do seu repositório Git, incluindo arquivos adicionados que não estão como staged, e arquivos que estão como staged.

      Para colocar como staged os arquivos modificados, utilize o comando add, que você pode executar diversas vezes antes de fazer um commit. Se você fizer alterações subsequentes que queira ver incluídas no próximo commit, você deve exwcutar add novamente.

      Você pode especificar o arquivo exato com o add.

      Com o . você pode adicionar todos os arquivos no diretório atual incluindo arquivos que começam com um ..

      Você pode remover um arquivo da área de staging enquanto mantém as alterações no seu diretório de trabalho com reset.

      Fazendo Commit

      Um vez que você tenha colocado no stage a suas atualizações, você está pronto para fazer o commit delas, que irá gravar as alterações que você fez no repositório.

      Para fazer commit dos arquivos em stage, você irá executar o comando commit com sua mensagem de confirmação significativa para que você possa rastrear os commits.

      • git commit -m "Mensagem de commit"

      Você pode condensar o staging de todos os arquivos rastreados fazendo o commit deles em uma única etapa.

      • git commit -am "Mensagem de commit"

      Se você precisar modificar a sua mensagem de commit, você pode fazer isto com a flag --amend.

      • git commit --amend -m "Nova Mensagem de commit"

      Branches ou Ramificações

      Uma branch ou ramificação é um ponteiro móvel para um dos commits no repositório. Ele lhe permite isolar o trabalho e gerenciar o desenvolvimento de recursos e integrações. Você pode aprender mais sobre branches através da leitura da documentação do Git.

      Listar todas as branches atuais com o comando branch. Um aterisco (*) irá aparecer próximo à sua branch ativa atualmente.

      Criar uma nova branch. Você permanecerá na sua branch ativa até mudar para a nova.

      Alternar para qualquer branch existente e fazer checkout em seu diretório de trabalho atual.

      • git checkout outra-branch

      Você pode consolidar a criação e o checkout de uma nova branch utilizando a flag -b.

      • git checkout -b nova-branch

      Renomear a sua branch.

      • git branch -m nome-da-branch-atual novo-nome-da-branch

      Mesclar o histórico da branch especificada àquela em que você está trabalhando atualmente.

      Abortar a mesclagem, no caso de existirem conflitos.

      Você também pode selecionar um commit particular para mesclar com cherry-pick e com a string que referencia o commit específico.

      Quando você tiver mesclado uma branch e não precisar mais dela, poderá excluí-la.

      • git branch -d nome-da-branch

      Se você não tiver mesclado uma branch com o master, mas tiver certeza de que deseja excluí-la, poderá forçar a exclusão da branch.

      • git branch -D nome-da-branch

      Colaborar e Atualizar

      Para baixar alterações de outro repositório, tal como o upstream remoto, você irá usar o fetch.

      Mesclar os commits baixados.

      • git merge upstream/master

      Envie ou transmita seus commits na branch local para a branch do repositório remoto.

      Busque e mescle quaisquer commits da branch remota de rastreamento.

      Inspecionando

      Mostrar o histórico de commits para a branch ativa atualmente.

      Mostrar os commits que alteraram um arquivo particular. Isso segue o arquivo, independentemente da renomeação do mesmo.

      • git log --follow meu_script.py

      Mostrar os commits que estão em uma branch e não estão em outra. Isto irá mostrar os commits em a-branch que não estão em b-branch.

      • git log a-branch..b-branch

      Observe os logs de referência (reflog) para ver quando as dicas de branches e outras referências foram atualizadas pela última vez dentro do repositório.

      Mostrar qualquer objeto no Git através da sua string de commit ou hash em um formato mais legível.

      Mostrar Alterações

      O comando git diff mostra as alterações entre commits, branches, entre outras. Você pode ler mais detalhadamente sobre isso através da Documentação do Git.

      Comparar arquivos modificados que estão na área de staging.

      Exibe o diff do que está em a-branch mas não está em b-branch.

      • git diff a-branch..b-branch

      Mostrar o diff entre dois commits específicos.

      • git diff 61ce3e6..e221d9c

      Stashing

      Às vezes, você descobrirá que fez alterações em algum código, mas, antes de terminar, precisa começar a trabalhar em outra coisa. Você ainda não está pronto para fazer o commit das alterações que você fez até agora, mas não quer perder seu trabalho. O comando git stash lhe permitirá salvar suas modificações locais e reverter para o diretório de trabalho que está alinhado com o commit mais recente do HEAD.

      Guarde (stash) seu trabalho atual.

      Veja o que você tem guardado atualmente.

      Seus rascunhos serão nomeados stash@{0}, stash@{1}, e assim por diante.

      Mostrar informações sobre um rascunho em particular.

      Para trazer os arquivos de um rascunho atual enquanto mantém o rascunho guardado, utilize apply.

      • git stash apply stash@{0}

      Se você quer trazer os arquivos de uma rascunho e não precisa mais do rascunho, utilize pop.

      Se você não precisar mais dos arquivos salvos em um determinado rascunho ou stash, você pode descartar o rascunho com drop.

      Se você tiver muitos rascunhos salvos e não precisar mais de nenhum deles, você pode utilizar clear para removê-los.

      Ignorando Arquivos

      Se você quiser manter arquivos em seu diretório local do Git, mas não quer fazer o commit deles no projeto, você pode adicionar esses arquivos ao seu arquvo .gitignore para que não causem conflitos.

      Utilize um editor de textos como o nano para adicionar arquivos ao arquivo .gitignore.

      Para ver exemplos de arquivos .gitignore, você pode olhar o repositório de modelos .gitignore do GitHub.

      Rebasing

      Um rebase nos permite mover as branches alterando o commit no qual elas são baseadas. Como o rebasing, você pode reescrever ou reformular os commits.

      Você pode iniciar um rebase chamando o número de commits que você fez e que você quer fazer rebase (5 no caso abaixo).

      Como alternativa, você pode fazer o rebase com base em uma determinada string de commit ou hash.

      Depois de ter reescrito ou reformulado os commits, você pode concluir o rebase da sua branch em cima da versão mais recente do código upstream do projeto.

      • git rebase upstream/master

      Para aprender mais sobre rabase e atualização, você pode ler How To Rebase and Update a Pull Request, que também é aplicável a qualquer tipo de commit.

      Resetando

      Às vezes, inclusive após um rebase, você precisa redefinir sua árvore de trabalho. Você pode redefinir ou resetar para um commit específico e excluir todas as alterações com o seguinte comando.

      Para forçar a enviar seu último commit conhecido e não conflitante para o repositório de origem, você precisará usar o --force.

      Atenção: Forçar o envio ou pushing para o master não é muito aprovado a menos que haja uma razão realmente importante para fazê-lo. Use isso com moderação ao trabalhar em seus próprios repositórios e evite fazer isso quando estiver colaborando.

      • git push --force origin master

      Para remover arquivos e subdiretórios locais não rastreados do diretório Git para uma branch de trabalho limpa, você pode usar git clean.

      Se você precisar modificar seu repositório local para que ele pareça com o upstream master atual (isto é, quando há muitos conflitos), você pode executar um hard reset.

      Nota: Executar este comando fará com que seu repositório local fique exatamente igual ao upstream. Todos os commits que você fez, mas que não foram enviados para o upstream, serão destruídos.

      • git reset --hard upstream/master

      Conclusão

      Este guia aborda alguns dos comandos mais comuns do Git que você pode usar ao gerenciar repositórios e colaborar em software.

      Você pode aprender mais sobre software open-source e colaboração em nossa série de tutoriais Introduction to Open Source:

      Existem muitos outros comandos e variações que você pode achar úteis como parte do seu trabalho com o Git. Para saber mais sobre todas as opções disponíveis, você pode executar o comando abaixo receber informações úteis:

      Você também pode ler mais sobre o Git e ver a documentação dele no website oficial do Git.

      Por Lisa Tagliaferri



      Source link

      How To Send Web Push Notifications from Django Applications


      The author selected the Open Internet/Free Speech Fund to receive a donation as part of the Write for DOnations program.

      Introduction

      The web is constantly evolving, and it can now achieve functionalities that were formerly only available on native mobile devices. The introduction of JavaScript service workers gave the web newfound abilities to do things like background syncing, offline caching, and sending push notifications.

      Push notifications allow users to opt-in to receive updates to mobile and web applications. They also enable users to re-engage with existing applications using customized and relevant content.

      In this tutorial, you’ll set up a Django application on Ubuntu 18.04 that sends push notifications whenever there’s an activity that requires the user to visit the application. To create these notifications, you will use the Django-Webpush package and set up and register a service worker to display notifications to the client. The working application with notifications will look like this:

      Web push final

      Prerequisites

      Before you begin this guide you’ll need the following:

      Step 1 — Installing Django-Webpush and Getting Vapid Keys

      Django-Webpush is a package that enables developers to integrate and send web push notifications in Django applications. We’ll use this package to trigger and send push notifications from our application. In this step, you will install Django-Webpush and obtain the Voluntary Application Server Identification (VAPID) keys that are necessary for identifying your server and ensuring the uniqueness of each request.

      Make sure you are in the ~/djangopush project directory that you created in the prerequisites:

      Activate your virtual environment:

      • source my_env/bin/activate

      Upgrade your version of pip to ensure it's up-to-date:

      • pip install --upgrade pip

      Install Django-Webpush:

      • pip install django-webpush

      After installing the package, add it to the list of applications in your settings.py file. First open settings.py:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      Add webpush to the list of INSTALLED_APPS:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      ...
      
      INSTALLED_APPS = [
          ...,
          'webpush',
      ]
      ...
      

      Save the file and exit your editor.

      Run migrations on the application to apply the changes you've made to your database schema:

      The output will look like this, indicating a successful migration:

      Output

      Operations to perform: Apply all migrations: admin, auth, contenttypes, sessions, webpush Running migrations: Applying webpush.0001_initial... OK

      The next step in setting up web push notifications is getting VAPID keys. These keys identify the application server and can be used to reduce the secrecy for push subscription URLs, since they restrict subscriptions to a specific server.

      To obtain VAPID keys, navigate to the wep-push-codelab web application. Here, you'll be given automatically generated keys. Copy the private and public keys.

      Next, create a new entry in settings.py for your VAPID information. First, open the file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      Next, add a new directive called WEBPUSH_SETTINGS with your VAPID public and private keys and your email below AUTH_PASSWORD_VALIDATORS:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      ...
      
      AUTH_PASSWORD_VALIDATORS = [
          ...
      ]
      
      WEBPUSH_SETTINGS = {
         "VAPID_PUBLIC_KEY": "your_vapid_public_key",
         "VAPID_PRIVATE_KEY": "your_vapid_private_key",
         "VAPID_ADMIN_EMAIL": "[email protected]"
      }
      
      # Internationalization
      # https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/2.0/topics/i18n/
      
      ...
      

      Don't forget to replace the placeholder values your_vapid_public_key, your_vapid_private_key, and [email protected] with your own information. Your email address is how you will be notified if the push server experiences any issues.

      Next, we'll set up views that will display the application's home page and trigger push notifications to subscribed users.

      Step 2 — Setting Up Views

      In this step, we'll setup a basic home view with the HttpResponse response object for our home page, along with a send_push view. Views are functions that return response objects from web requests. The send_push view will use the Django-Webpush library to send push notifications that contain the data entered by a user on the home page.

      Navigate to the ~/djangopush/djangopush folder:

      • cd ~/djangopush/djangopush

      Running ls inside the folder will show you the project's main files:

      Output

      /__init__.py /settings.py /urls.py /wsgi.py

      The files in this folder are auto-generated by the django-admin utility that you used to create your project in the prerequisites. The settings.py file contains project-wide configurations like installed applications and the static root folder. The urls.py file contains the URL configurations for the project. This is where you will set up routes to match your created views.

      Create a new file inside the ~/djangopush/djangopush directory called views.py, which will contain the views for your project:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/views.py

      The first view we'll make is the home view, which will display the home page where users can send push notifications. Add the following code to the file:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/views.py

      from django.http.response import HttpResponse
      from django.views.decorators.http import require_GET
      
      @require_GET
      def home(request):
          return HttpResponse('<h1>Home Page<h1>')
      

      The home view is decorated by the require_GET decorator, which restricts the view to GET requests only. A view typically returns a response for every request made to it. This view returns a simple HTML tag as a response.

      The next view we'll create is send_push, which will handle sent push notifications using the django-webpush package. It will be restricted to POST requests only and will be exempted from Cross Site Request Forgery (CSRF) protection. Doing this will allow you to test the view using Postman or any other RESTful service. In production, however, you should remove this decorator to avoid leaving your views vulnerable to CSRF.

      To create the send_push view, first add the following imports to enable JSON responses and access the send_user_notification function in the webpush library:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/views.py

      from django.http.response import JsonResponse, HttpResponse
      from django.views.decorators.http import require_GET, require_POST
      from django.shortcuts import get_object_or_404
      from django.contrib.auth.models import User
      from django.views.decorators.csrf import csrf_exempt
      from webpush import send_user_notification
      import json
      

      Next, add the require_POST decorator, which will use the request body sent by the user to create and trigger a push notification:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/views.py

      @require_GET
      def home(request):
          ...
      
      
      @require_POST
      @csrf_exempt
      def send_push(request):
          try:
              body = request.body
              data = json.loads(body)
      
              if 'head' not in data or 'body' not in data or 'id' not in data:
                  return JsonResponse(status=400, data={"message": "Invalid data format"})
      
              user_id = data['id']
              user = get_object_or_404(User, pk=user_id)
              payload = {'head': data['head'], 'body': data['body']}
              send_user_notification(user=user, payload=payload, ttl=1000)
      
              return JsonResponse(status=200, data={"message": "Web push successful"})
          except TypeError:
              return JsonResponse(status=500, data={"message": "An error occurred"})
      

      We are using two decorators for the send_push view: the require_POST decorator, which restricts the view to POST requests only, and the csrf_exempt decorator, which exempts the view from CSRF protection.

      This view expects POST data and does the following: it gets the body of the request and, using the json package, deserializes the JSON document to a Python object using json.loads. json.loads takes a structured JSON document and converts it to a Python object.

      The view expects the request body object to have three properties:

      • head: The title of the push notification.
      • body: The body of the notification.
      • id: The id of the request user.

      If any of the required properties are missing, the view will return a JSONResponse with a 404 "Not Found" status. If the user with the given primary key exists, the view will return the user with the matching primary key using the get_object_or_404 function from the django.shortcuts library. If the user doesn't exist, the function will return a 404 error.

      The view also makes use of the send_user_notification function from the webpush library. This function takes three parameters:

      • User: The recipient of the push notification.
      • payload: The notification information, which includes the notification head and body.
      • ttl: The maximum time in seconds that the notification should be stored if the user is offline.

      If no errors occur, the view returns a JSONResponse with a 200 "Success" status and a data object. If a KeyError occurs, the view will return a 500 "Internal Server Error" status. A KeyError occurs when the requested key of an object doesn't exist.

      In the next step, we'll create corresponding URL routes to match the views we've created.

      Step 3 — Mapping URLs to Views

      Django makes it possible to create URLs that connect to views with a Python module called a URLconf. This module maps URL path expressions to Python functions (your views). Usually, a URL configuration file is auto-generated when you create a project. In this step, you will update this file to include new routes for the views you created in the previous step, along with the URLs for the django-webpush app, which will provide endpoints to subscribe users to push notifications.

      For more information about views, please see How To Create Django Views.

      Open urls.py:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      The file will look like this:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      
      """untitled URL Configuration
      
      The `urlpatterns` list routes URLs to views. For more information please see:
          https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/2.1/topics/http/urls/
      Examples:
      Function views
          1. Add an import:  from my_app import views
          2. Add a URL to urlpatterns:  path('', views.home, name='home')
      Class-based views
          1. Add an import:  from other_app.views import Home
          2. Add a URL to urlpatterns:  path('', Home.as_view(), name='home')
      Including another URLconf
          1. Import the include() function: from django.urls import include, path
          2. Add a URL to urlpatterns:  path('blog/', include('blog.urls'))
      """
      from django.contrib import admin
      from django.urls import path
      
      urlpatterns = [
          path('admin/', admin.site.urls),
      ]
      

      The next step is to map the views you've created to URLs. First, add the include import to ensure that all of the routes for the Django-Webpush library will be added to your project:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      
      """webpushdjango URL Configuration
      ...
      """
      from django.contrib import admin
      from django.urls import path, include
      

      Next, import the views you created in the last step and update the urlpatterns list to map your views:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      
      """webpushdjango URL Configuration
      ...
      """
      from django.contrib import admin
      from django.urls import path, include
      
      from .views import home, send_push
      
      urlpatterns = [
                        path('admin/', admin.site.urls),
                        path('', home),
                        path('send_push', send_push),
                        path('webpush/', include('webpush.urls')),
                    ]
      

      Here, the urlpatterns list registers the URLs for the django-webpush package and maps your views to the URLs /send_push and /home.

      Let's test the /home view to be sure that it's working as intended. Make sure you're in the root directory of the project:

      Start your server by running the following command:

      • python manage.py runserver your_server_ip:8000

      Navigate to http://your_server_ip:8000. You should see the following home page:

      Initial Home Page view

      At this point, you can kill the server with CTRL+C, and we will move on to creating templates and rendering them in our views using the render function.

      Step 4 — Creating Templates

      Django’s template engine allows you to define the user-facing layers of your application with templates, which are similar to HTML files. In this step, you will create and render a template for the home view.

      Create a folder called templates in your project's root directory:

      • mkdir ~/djangopush/templates

      If you run ls in the root folder of your project at this point, the output will look like this:

      Output

      /djangopush /templates db.sqlite3 manage.py /my_env

      Create a file called home.html in the templates folder:

      • nano ~/djangopush/templates/home.html

      Add the following code to the file to create a form where users can enter information to create push notifications:

      {% load static %}
      <!DOCTYPE html>
      <html lang="en">
      <head>
          <meta charset="UTF-8">
          <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
          <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="ie=edge">
          <meta name="vapid-key" content="{{ vapid_key }}">
          {% if user.id %}
              <meta name="user_id" content="{{ user.id }}">
          {% endif %}
          <title>Web Push</title>
          <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=PT+Sans:400,700" rel="stylesheet">
      </head>
      
      <body>
      <div>
          <form id="send-push__form">
              <h3 class="header">Send a push notification</h3>
              <p class="error"></p>
              <input type="text" name="head" placeholder="Header: Your favorite airline 😍">
              <textarea name="body" id="" cols="30" rows="10" placeholder="Body: Your flight has been cancelled 😱😱😱"></textarea>
              <button>Send Me</button>
          </form>
      </div>
      </body>
      </html>
      

      The body of the file includes a form with two fields: an input element will hold the head/title of the notification and a textarea element will hold the notification body.

      In the head section of the file, there are two meta tags that will hold the VAPID public key and the user's id. These two variables are required to register a user and send them push notifications. The user's id is required here because you'll be sending AJAX requests to the server and the id will be used to identify the user. If the current user is a registered user, then the template will create a meta tag with their id as the content.

      The next step is to tell Django where to find your templates. To do this, you will edit settings.py and update the TEMPLATES list.

      Open the settings.py file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      Add the following to the DIRS list to specify the path to the templates directory:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      ...
      TEMPLATES = [
          {
              'BACKEND': 'django.template.backends.django.DjangoTemplates',
              'DIRS': [os.path.join(BASE_DIR, 'templates')],
              'APP_DIRS': True,
              'OPTIONS': {
                  'context_processors': [
                      ...
                  ],
              },
          },
      ]
      ...
      

      Next, in your views.py file, update the home view to render the home.html template. Open the file:

      • nano ~/djangpush/djangopush/views.py

      First, add some additional imports, including the settings configuration, which contains all of the project's settings from the settings.py file, and the render function from django.shortcuts:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/views.py

      ...
      from django.shortcuts import render, get_object_or_404
      ...
      import json
      from django.conf import settings
      
      ...
      

      Next, remove the initial code you added to the home view and add the following, which specifies how the template you just created will be rendered:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/views.py

      ...
      
      @require_GET
      def home(request):
         webpush_settings = getattr(settings, 'WEBPUSH_SETTINGS', {})
         vapid_key = webpush_settings.get('VAPID_PUBLIC_KEY')
         user = request.user
         return render(request, 'home.html', {user: user, 'vapid_key': vapid_key})
      

      The code assigns the following variables:

      • webpush_settings: This is assigned the value of the WEBPUSH_SETTINGS attribute from the settings configuration.
      • vapid_key: This gets the VAPID_PUBLIC_KEY value from the webpush_settings object to send to the client. This public key is checked against the private key to ensure that the client with the public key is permitted to receive push messages from the server.
      • user: This variable comes from the incoming request. Whenever a user makes a request to the server, the details for that user are stored in the user field.

      The render function will return an HTML file and a context object containing the current user and the server's vapid public key. It takes three parameters here: the request, the template to be rendered, and the object that contains the variables that will be used in the template.

      With our template created and the home view updated, we can move on to configuring Django to serve our static files.

      Step 5 — Serving Static Files

      Web applications include CSS, JavaScript, and other image files that Django refers to as “static files”. Django allows you to collect all of the static files from each application in your project into a single location from which they are served. This solution is called django.contrib.staticfiles. In this step, we'll update our settings to tell Django where our static files will be stored.

      Open settings.py:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      In settings.py, first ensure that the STATIC_URL has been defined:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      ...
      STATIC_URL = '/static/'
      

      Next, add a list of directories called STATICFILES_DIRS where Django will look for static files:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      ...
      STATIC_URL = '/static/'
      STATICFILES_DIRS = [
          os.path.join(BASE_DIR, "static"),
      ]
      

      You can now add the STATIC_URL to the list of paths defined in your urls.py file.

      Open the file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      Add the following code, which will import the static url configuration and update the urlpatterns list. The helper function here uses the STATIC_URL and STATIC_ROOT properties we provided in the settings.py file to serve the project's static files:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      
      ...
      from django.conf import settings
      from django.conf.urls.static import static
      
      urlpatterns = [
          ...
      ]  + static(settings.STATIC_URL, document_root=settings.STATIC_ROOT)
      

      With our static files settings configured, we can move on to styling the application's home page.

      Step 6 — Styling the Home Page

      After setting up your application to serve static files, you can create an external stylesheet and link it to the home.html file to style the home page. All of your static files will be stored in a static directory in the root folder of your project.

      Create a static folder and a css folder within the static folder:

      • mkdir -p ~/djangopush/static/css

      Open a css file called styles.css inside the css folder:

      • nano ~/djangopush/static/css/styles.css

      Add the following styles for the home page:

      ~/djangopush/static/css/styles.css

      
      body {
          height: 100%;
          background: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.87);
          font-family: 'PT Sans', sans-serif;
      }
      
      div {
          height: 100%;
          display: flex;
          align-items: center;
          justify-content: center;
      }
      
      form {
          display: flex;
          flex-direction: column;
          align-items: center;
          justify-content: center;
          width: 35%;
          margin: 10% auto;
      }
      
      form > h3 {
          font-size: 17px;
          font-weight: bold;
          margin: 15px 0;
          color: orangered;
          text-transform: uppercase;
      }
      
      form > .error {
          margin: 0;
          font-size: 15px;
          font-weight: normal;
          color: orange;
          opacity: 0.7;
      }
      
      form > input, form > textarea {
          border: 3px solid orangered;
          box-shadow: unset;
          padding: 13px 12px;
          margin: 12px auto;
          width: 80%;
          font-size: 13px;
          font-weight: 500;
      }
      
      form > input:focus, form > textarea:focus {
          border: 3px solid orangered;
          box-shadow: 0 2px 3px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);
          outline: unset;
      }
      
      form > button {
          justify-self: center;
          padding: 12px 25px;
          border-radius: 0;
          text-transform: uppercase;
          font-weight: 600;
          background: orangered;
          color: white;
          border: none;
          font-size: 14px;
          letter-spacing: -0.1px;
          cursor: pointer;
      }
      
      form > button:disabled {
          background: dimgrey;
          cursor: not-allowed;
      }
      

      With the stylesheet created, you can link it to the home.html file using static template tags. Open the home.html file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/templates/home.html

      Update the head section to include a link to the external stylesheet:

      ~/djangopush/templates/home.html

      
      {% load static %}
      <!DOCTYPE html>
      <html lang="en">
      
      <head>
          ...
          <link href="http://www.digitalocean.com/{% static"/css/styles.css' %}" rel="stylesheet">
      </head>
      <body>
          ...
      </body>
      </html>
      

      Make sure that you are in your main project directory and start your server again to inspect your work:

      • cd ~/djangopush
      • python manage.py runserver your_server_ip:8000

      When you visit http://your_server_ip:8000, it should look like this:

      Home page view
      Again, you can kill the server with CTRL+C.

      Now that you have successfully created the home.html page and styled it, you can subscribe users to push notifications whenever they visit the home page.

      Step 7 — Registering a Service Worker and Subscribing Users to Push Notifications

      Web push notifications can notify users when there are updates to applications they are subscribed to or prompt them to re-engage with applications they have used in the past. They rely on two technologies, the push API and the notifications API. Both technologies rely on the presence of a service worker.

      A push is invoked when the server provides information to the service worker and the service worker uses the notifications API to display this information.

      We'll subscribe our users to the push and then we'll send the information from the subscription to the server to register them.

      In the static directory, create a folder called js:

      • mkdir ~/djangopush/static/js

      Create a file called registerSw.js:

      • nano ~/djangopush/static/js/registerSw.js

      Add the following code, which checks if service workers are supported on the user's browser before attempting to register a service worker:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/registerSw.js

      
      const registerSw = async () => {
          if ('serviceWorker' in navigator) {
              const reg = await navigator.serviceWorker.register('sw.js');
              initialiseState(reg)
      
          } else {
              showNotAllowed("You can't send push notifications ☹️😢")
          }
      };
      

      First, the registerSw function checks if the browser supports service workers before registering them. After registration, it calls the initializeState function with the registration data. If service workers are not supported in the browser, it calls the showNotAllowed function.

      Next, add the following code below the registerSw function to check if a user is eligible to receive push notifications before attempting to subscribe them:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/registerSw.js

      
      ...
      
      const initialiseState = (reg) => {
          if (!reg.showNotification) {
              showNotAllowed('Showing notifications isn't supported ☹️😢');
              return
          }
          if (Notification.permission === 'denied') {
              showNotAllowed('You prevented us from showing notifications ☹️🤔');
              return
          }
          if (!'PushManager' in window) {
              showNotAllowed("Push isn't allowed in your browser 🤔");
              return
          }
          subscribe(reg);
      }
      
      const showNotAllowed = (message) => {
          const button = document.querySelector('form>button');
          button.innerHTML = `${message}`;
          button.setAttribute('disabled', 'true');
      };
      

      The initializeState function checks the following:

      • Whether or not the user has enabled notifications, using the value of reg.showNotification.
      • Whether or not the user has granted the application permission to display notifications.
      • Whether or not the browser supports the PushManager API.
        If any of these checks fail, the showNotAllowed function is called and the subscription is aborted.

      The showNotAllowed function displays a message on the button and disables it if a user is ineligible to receive notifications. It also displays appropriate messages if a user has restricted the application from displaying notifications or if the browser doesn't support push notifications.

      Once we ensure that a user is eligible to receive push notifications, the next step is to subscribe them using pushManager. Add the following code below the showNotAllowed function:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/registerSw.js

      
      ...
      
      function urlB64ToUint8Array(base64String) {
          const padding = '='.repeat((4 - base64String.length % 4) % 4);
          const base64 = (base64String + padding)
              .replace(/-/g, '+')
              .replace(/_/g, '/');
      
          const rawData = window.atob(base64);
          const outputArray = new Uint8Array(rawData.length);
          const outputData = outputArray.map((output, index) => rawData.charCodeAt(index));
      
          return outputData;
      }
      
      const subscribe = async (reg) => {
          const subscription = await reg.pushManager.getSubscription();
          if (subscription) {
              sendSubData(subscription);
              return;
          }
      
          const vapidMeta = document.querySelector('meta[name="vapid-key"]');
          const key = vapidMeta.content;
          const options = {
              userVisibleOnly: true,
              // if key exists, create applicationServerKey property
              ...(key && {applicationServerKey: urlB64ToUint8Array(key)})
          };
      
          const sub = await reg.pushManager.subscribe(options);
          sendSubData(sub)
      };
      

      Calling the pushManager.getSubscription function returns the data for an active subscription. When an active subscription exists, the sendSubData function is called with the subscription info passed in as a parameter.

      When no active subscription exists, the VAPID public key, which is Base64 URL-safe encoded, is converted to a Uint8Array using the urlB64ToUint8Array function. pushManager.subscribe is then called with the VAPID public key and the userVisible value as options. You can read more about the available options here.

      After successfully subscribing a user, the next step is to send the subscription data to the server. The data will be sent to the webpush/save_information endpoint provided by the django-webpush package. Add the following code below the subscribe function:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/registerSw.js

      
      ...
      
      const sendSubData = async (subscription) => {
          const browser = navigator.userAgent.match(/(firefox|msie|chrome|safari|trident)/ig)[0].toLowerCase();
          const data = {
              status_type: 'subscribe',
              subscription: subscription.toJSON(),
              browser: browser,
          };
      
          const res = await fetch('/webpush/save_information', {
              method: 'POST',
              body: JSON.stringify(data),
              headers: {
                  'content-type': 'application/json'
              },
              credentials: "include"
          });
      
          handleResponse(res);
      };
      
      const handleResponse = (res) => {
          console.log(res.status);
      };
      
      registerSw();
      

      The save_information endpoint requires information about the status of the subscription (subscribe and unsubscribe), the subscription data, and the browser. Finally, we call the registerSw() function to begin the process of subscribing the user.

      The completed file looks like this:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/registerSw.js

      
      const registerSw = async () => {
          if ('serviceWorker' in navigator) {
              const reg = await navigator.serviceWorker.register('sw.js');
              initialiseState(reg)
      
          } else {
              showNotAllowed("You can't send push notifications ☹️😢")
          }
      };
      
      const initialiseState = (reg) => {
          if (!reg.showNotification) {
              showNotAllowed('Showing notifications isn't supported ☹️😢');
              return
          }
          if (Notification.permission === 'denied') {
              showNotAllowed('You prevented us from showing notifications ☹️🤔');
              return
          }
          if (!'PushManager' in window) {
              showNotAllowed("Push isn't allowed in your browser 🤔");
              return
          }
          subscribe(reg);
      }
      
      const showNotAllowed = (message) => {
          const button = document.querySelector('form>button');
          button.innerHTML = `${message}`;
          button.setAttribute('disabled', 'true');
      };
      
      function urlB64ToUint8Array(base64String) {
          const padding = '='.repeat((4 - base64String.length % 4) % 4);
          const base64 = (base64String + padding)
              .replace(/-/g, '+')
              .replace(/_/g, '/');
      
          const rawData = window.atob(base64);
          const outputArray = new Uint8Array(rawData.length);
          const outputData = outputArray.map((output, index) => rawData.charCodeAt(index));
      
          return outputData;
      }
      
      const subscribe = async (reg) => {
          const subscription = await reg.pushManager.getSubscription();
          if (subscription) {
              sendSubData(subscription);
              return;
          }
      
          const vapidMeta = document.querySelector('meta[name="vapid-key"]');
          const key = vapidMeta.content;
          const options = {
              userVisibleOnly: true,
              // if key exists, create applicationServerKey property
              ...(key && {applicationServerKey: urlB64ToUint8Array(key)})
          };
      
          const sub = await reg.pushManager.subscribe(options);
          sendSubData(sub)
      };
      
      const sendSubData = async (subscription) => {
          const browser = navigator.userAgent.match(/(firefox|msie|chrome|safari|trident)/ig)[0].toLowerCase();
          const data = {
              status_type: 'subscribe',
              subscription: subscription.toJSON(),
              browser: browser,
          };
      
          const res = await fetch('/webpush/save_information', {
              method: 'POST',
              body: JSON.stringify(data),
              headers: {
                  'content-type': 'application/json'
              },
              credentials: "include"
          });
      
          handleResponse(res);
      };
      
      const handleResponse = (res) => {
          console.log(res.status);
      };
      
      registerSw();
      

      Next, add a script tag for the registerSw.js file in home.html. Open the file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/templates/home.html

      Add the script tag before the closing tag of the body element:

      ~/djangopush/templates/home.html

      
      {% load static %}
      <!DOCTYPE html>
      <html lang="en">
      
      <head>
         ...
      </head>
      <body>
         ...
         <script src="https://www.digitalocean.com/{% static"/js/registerSw.js' %}"></script>
      </body>
      </html>
      

      Because a service worker doesn't yet exist, if you left your application running or tried to start it again, you would see an error message. Let's fix this by creating a service worker.

      Step 8 — Creating a Service Worker

      To display a push notification, you'll need an active service worker installed on your application's home page. We'll create a service worker that listens for push events and displays the messages when ready.

      Because we want the scope of the service worker to be the entire domain, we will need to install it in the application's root. You can read more about the process in this article outlining how to register a service worker. Our approach will be to create a sw.js file in the templates folder, which we will then register as a view.

      Create the file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/templates/sw.js

      Add the following code, which tells the service worker to listen for push events:

      ~/djangopush/templates/sw.js

      
      // Register event listener for the 'push' event.
      self.addEventListener('push', function (event) {
          // Retrieve the textual payload from event.data (a PushMessageData object).
          // Other formats are supported (ArrayBuffer, Blob, JSON), check out the documentation
          // on https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/PushMessageData.
          const eventInfo = event.data.text();
          const data = JSON.parse(eventInfo);
          const head = data.head || 'New Notification 🕺🕺';
          const body = data.body || 'This is default content. Your notification didn't have one 🙄🙄';
      
          // Keep the service worker alive until the notification is created.
          event.waitUntil(
              self.registration.showNotification(head, {
                  body: body,
                  icon: 'https://i.imgur.com/MZM3K5w.png'
              })
          );
      });
      

      The service worker listens for a push event. In the callback function, the event data is converted to text. We use default title and body strings if the event data doesn't have them. The showNotification function takes the notification title, the header of the notification to be displayed, and an options object as parameters. The options object contains several properties to configure the visual options of a notification.

      For your service worker to work for the entirety of your domain, you will need to install it in the root of the application. We'll use TemplateView to allow the service worker access to the whole domain.

      Open the urls.py file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      Add a new import statement and path in the urlpatterns list to create a class-based view:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/urls.py

      ...
      from django.views.generic import TemplateView
      
      urlpatterns = [
                        ...,
                        path('sw.js', TemplateView.as_view(template_name='sw.js', content_type='application/x-javascript'))
                    ] + static(settings.STATIC_URL, document_root=settings.STATIC_ROOT)
      

      Class-based views like TemplateView allow you to create flexible, reusable views. In this case, the TemplateView.as_view method creates a path for the service worker by passing the recently created service worker as a template and application/x-javascript as the content_type of the template.

      You have now created a service worker and registered it as a route. Next, you'll set up the form on the home page to send push notifications.

      Step 9 — Sending Push Notifications

      Using the form on the home page, users should be able to send push notifications while your server is running. You can also send push notifications using any RESTful service like Postman. When the user sends push notifications from the form on the home page, the data will include a head and body, as well as the id of the receiving user. The data should be structured in the following manner:

      {
          head: "Title of the notification",
          body: "Notification body",
          id: "User's id"
      }
      

      To listen for the submit event of the form and send the data entered by the user to the server, we will create a file called site.js in the ~/djangopush/static/js directory.

      Open the file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/static/js/site.js

      First, add a submit event listener to the form that will enable you to get the values of the form inputs and the user id stored in the meta tag of your template:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/site.js

      
      const pushForm = document.getElementById('send-push__form');
      const errorMsg = document.querySelector('.error');
      
      pushForm.addEventListener('submit', async function (e) {
          e.preventDefault();
          const input = this[0];
          const textarea = this[1];
          const button = this[2];
          errorMsg.innerText = '';
      
          const head = input.value;
          const body = textarea.value;
          const meta = document.querySelector('meta[name="user_id"]');
          const id = meta ? meta.content : null;
          ...
          // TODO: make an AJAX request to send notification
      });
      

      The pushForm function gets the input, textarea, and button inside the form. It also gets the information from the meta tag, including the name attribute user_id and the user's id stored in the content attribute of the tag. With this information, it can send a POST request to the /send_push endpoint on the server.

      To send requests to the server, we'll use the native Fetch API. We're using Fetch here because it is supported by most browsers and doesn't require external libraries to function. Below the code you've added, update the pushForm function to include the code for sending AJAX requests:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/site.js

      const pushForm = document.getElementById('send-push__form');
      const errorMsg = document.querySelector('.error');
      
      pushForm.addEventListener('submit', async function (e) {
           ...
          const id = meta ? meta.content : null;
      
           if (head && body && id) {
              button.innerText = 'Sending...';
              button.disabled = true;
      
              const res = await fetch('/send_push', {
                  method: 'POST',
                  body: JSON.stringify({head, body, id}),
                  headers: {
                      'content-type': 'application/json'
                  }
              });
              if (res.status === 200) {
                  button.innerText = 'Send another 😃!';
                  button.disabled = false;
                  input.value = '';
                  textarea.value = '';
              } else {
                  errorMsg.innerText = res.message;
                  button.innerText = 'Something broke 😢..  Try again?';
                  button.disabled = false;
              }
          }
          else {
              let error;
              if (!head || !body){
                  error = 'Please ensure you complete the form 🙏🏾'
              }
              else if (!id){
                  error = "Are you sure you're logged in? 🤔. Make sure! 👍🏼"
              }
              errorMsg.innerText = error;
          }
      });
      

      If the three required parameters head, body, and id are present, we send the request and disable the submit button temporarily.

      The completed file looks like this:

      ~/djangopush/static/js/site.js

      const pushForm = document.getElementById('send-push__form');
      const errorMsg = document.querySelector('.error');
      
      pushForm.addEventListener('submit', async function (e) {
          e.preventDefault();
          const input = this[0];
          const textarea = this[1];
          const button = this[2];
          errorMsg.innerText = '';
      
          const head = input.value;
          const body = textarea.value;
          const meta = document.querySelector('meta[name="user_id"]');
          const id = meta ? meta.content : null;
      
          if (head && body && id) {
              button.innerText = 'Sending...';
              button.disabled = true;
      
              const res = await fetch('/send_push', {
                  method: 'POST',
                  body: JSON.stringify({head, body, id}),
                  headers: {
                      'content-type': 'application/json'
                  }
              });
              if (res.status === 200) {
                  button.innerText = 'Send another 😃!';
                  button.disabled = false;
                  input.value = '';
                  textarea.value = '';
              } else {
                  errorMsg.innerText = res.message;
                  button.innerText = 'Something broke 😢..  Try again?';
                  button.disabled = false;
              }
          }
          else {
              let error;
              if (!head || !body){
                  error = 'Please ensure you complete the form 🙏🏾'
              }
              else if (!id){
                  error = "Are you sure you're logged in? 🤔. Make sure! 👍🏼"
              }
              errorMsg.innerText = error;
          }    
      });
      

      Finally, add the site.js file to home.html:

      • nano ~/djangopush/templates/home.html

      Add the script tag:

      ~/djangopush/templates/home.html

      
      {% load static %}
      <!DOCTYPE html>
      <html lang="en">
      
      <head>
         ...
      </head>
      <body>
         ...
         <script src="https://www.digitalocean.com/{% static"/js/site.js' %}"></script>
      </body>
      </html>
      

      At this point, if you left your application running or tried to start it again, you would see an error, since service workers can only function in secure domains or on localhost. In the next step we'll use ngrok to create a secure tunnel to our web server.

      Step 10 — Creating a Secure Tunnel to Test the Application

      Service workers require secure connections to function on any site except localhost since they can allow connections to be hijacked and responses to be filtered and fabricated. For this reason, we'll create a secure tunnel for our server with ngrok.

      Open a second terminal window and ensure you're in your home directory:

      If you started with a clean 18.04 server in the prerequisites, then you will need to install unzip:

      • sudo apt update && sudo apt install unzip

      Download ngrok:

      • wget https://bin.equinox.io/c/4VmDzA7iaHb/ngrok-stable-linux-amd64.zip
      • unzip ngrok-stable-linux-amd64.zip

      Move ngrok to /usr/local/bin, so that you will have access to the ngrok command from the terminal:

      • sudo mv ngrok /usr/local/bin

      In your first terminal window, make sure that you are in your project directory and start your server:

      • cd ~/djangopush
      • python manage.py runserver your_server_ip:8000

      You will need to do this before creating a secure tunnel for your application.

      In your second terminal window, navigate to your project folder, and activate your virtual environment:

      • cd ~/djangopush
      • source my_env/bin/activate

      Create the secure tunnel to your application:

      • ngrok http your_server_ip:8000

      You will see the following output, which includes information about your secure ngrok URL:

      Output

      ngrok by @inconshreveable (Ctrl+C to quit) Session Status online Session Expires 7 hours, 59 minutes Version 2.2.8 Region United States (us) Web Interface http://127.0.0.1:4040 Forwarding http://ngrok_secure_url -> 203.0.113.0:8000 Forwarding https://ngrok_secure_url -> 203.0.113.0:8000 Connections ttl opn rt1 rt5 p50 p90 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

      Copy the ngrok_secure_url from the console output. You will need to add it to the list of ALLOWED_HOSTS in your settings.py file.

      Open another terminal window, navigate to your project folder, and activate your virtual environment:

      • cd ~/djangopush
      • source my_env/bin/activate

      Open the settings.py file:

      • nano ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      Update the list of ALLOWED_HOSTS with the ngrok secure tunnel:

      ~/djangopush/djangopush/settings.py

      ...
      
      ALLOWED_HOSTS = ['your_server_ip', 'ngrok_secure_url']
      ...
      
      

      Navigate to the secure admin page to log in: https://ngrok_secure_url/admin/. You will see a screen that looks like this:

      ngrok admin login

      Enter your Django admin user information on this screen. This should be the same information you entered when you logged into the admin interface in the prerequisite steps. You are now ready to send push notifications.

      Visit https://ngrok_secure_url in your browser. You will see a prompt asking for permission to display notifications. Click the Allow button to let your browser display push notifications:

      push notifications request

      Submitting a filled form will display a notification similar to this:

      screenshot of notification

      Note: Be sure that your server is running before attempting to send notifications.

      If you received notifications then your application is working as expected.

      You have created a web application that triggers push notifications on the server and, with the help of service workers, receives and displays notifications. You also went through the steps of obtaining the VAPID keys that are required to send push notifications from an application server.

      Conclusion

      In this tutorial, you've learned how to subscribe users to push notifications, install service workers, and display push notifications using the notifications API.

      You can go even further by configuring the notifications to open specific areas of your application when clicked. The source code for this tutorial can be found here.



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